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6.4 Age of Discovery
Hi, this is the fourth part of chapter six, the age of discovery.
1. Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration is an informal and loosely defined period in the European history, from the end of the 15th century to the 18th century. There is a Chinses expression大航海, but in English it is called Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration. The Age of Discovery also started the slave trade and colonialization. From the perspective of Europeans, they discovered a new world previously unknown to them. But from the perspective of the local people already lived there for maybe millions years, it is an old world, their motherland; to them the Europeans are invaders from previously unknown countries.
Why did Europeans want to discover a sea route to India?
In 1453, The Ottomans conquered the Byzantine Empire. The name of this city changed into Istanbul, and it became the capital of the Ottoman Empire.
We all know the Silk Road has a history as long as more than two thousand years, beginning in the Chinese Han dynasty, Zhang Qian expanded the section from Chan An to the Central Asia. The Silk Road played a significant role in the trade between the west and the East. Silk and spices reached Europe through the Silk Road. After the expansion of the Ottoman Empire this road had been blocked, both on the land and on the sea. But the demand for spices and silk continued to rise at a great rate than their supply. This is the reason for Europeans to discover a sea route to India.
We can see from the map, that’s the silk road, on the land and on the sea, but ottoman empire blocked the road from here.
2. Spices
The word spice comes from the Old French word espice, which came from the Latin. Spices are usually dried and produced from the plants, including leaves, flowers, seeds, bark, roots and fruits. Historians believe nutmeg was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE. Nutmeg is one of the four great spices, originates from the Banda Islands in Indonesia. Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products in Europe in the Middle Ages. The Four great spices are: Cinnamon肉桂, clove丁香, nutmeg肉豆蔻 and mace豆蔻香料. We can imagine how fast food could be rotten without refrigerator. Spices not only can add flavor, but also can be used as preservatives. Some spices were used as perfumes to battle the bad smell in the city streets and the living areas. We know that time sanitary conditions were terrible.
3. Portuguese were the pioneers in exploration and colonization. Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator 1394 –1460 was the son of king John I, he is regarded as the main initiator of the Age of Discovery. Through his administrative direction the Portuguese discovered the sea rout to India along the coast of Africa and cross the Indian Ocean.
1488 Dias passed the Cape of Good Hope
Bartolomeu Dias was explorer and a nobleman of the Portuguese royal household. In 1488 he sailed around the west coast of Africa, passed the Cape of Good Hope and the southernmost tip of Africa, reached the Indian Ocean, the first European have done so. He intended to go further but the mutiny of his crew forced him to return to Lisbon. Mutiny means rebellion. Dias said his goal is "To give light to those who are in darkness and to grow rich".
4. 1499 Vasco da Gama reached India.
Vasco da Gama 1460– 1524 was a Portuguese nobleman and explorer, the first European to reach India by an ocean route, after 2 years voyage, he brought back the most valuable spices of the East. His discovery connected the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. He opened the way for an age of global imperialism and for the Portuguese to establish a colonial empire in Asia. We can see his statue, that’s from the front that’s from the back; he’s looking at the sea.
5. Columbus 1451-1506 discovered a New World
Cristopher Columbus was an Italian adventure, Born in the Republic of Genoa. He believed that the world was round and to reach the East Indies a western course would be shorter than the route found by Portuguese which has to going through Africa. He was right; it is true he can reach India by going west. He was wrong, this route actually four time longer.
On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus started his sailing to the west across the Atlantic Ocean with three ships, the flagship Santa María was about 19 m long. On 12 October he landed on an island in the Bahamas that he named "San Salvador". Columbus believed he reached the East Indies, the lands of South and Southeast Asia. He called the Native Americans Indians. He proclaimed he had discovered a new world, in Spanish, Mundus Novus, and this New World belongs to Spain because his exploration was sponsored by the Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella.
From 1493 to 1502, in his next three more voyages, he reached the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America, claiming all of them the Spanish territories. He was rewarded as the first Spanish Governor of the Indies.
It is wrong to say Columbus discovered a New World, it was an old world belong to the native Americans they had been living there for maybe 30,000 years, it was their motherland. The Europeans brutally conquered and colonized this vast land.
6. Landing of Columbus
This is the painting of the landing if Columbus
7. Gold, God, and Glory
Columbus was a bellwether, bellwether is a leader, and originally a bellwether is the sheep that leads the herd often wearing a bell. After Columbus waves of Spanish, French, Dutch, German and English rushed to conquer the new world. Their motive can be summarized in three words: Gold, God, and Glory. They want to plunder the resources and wealth, they want to Christianize the indigenous people, they want to bring honor to their kings and queens. Europeans sometime describe the indigenes people as dog-faced, dog-toothed. Sometime they were called satyrs; satyr is a man with strong sexual desires. Have you seen the film series: the Chronicles of Narnia. This guy is a satyr with a human head and goat body. Sometime the local people were called cannibal, people who eat human. Have you read Daniel Defoe’ Robinson Crusoe? Robinson Crusoe’s servant Friday formerly was a cannibal.
Columbian Exchange
In 1972 an American historian Alfred W. Crosby, published a book The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Since then the term Columbian Exchange has become popular among historians and journalists. It refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the new world and the old World after Columbus's voyage. The Europeans brought diseases like smallpox天花, typhoid伤寒measles 风麻疹 and influenza that killed millions of native Americans because they don’t have immunity, the Europeans also brought horse, pigs, cow, and other domestic animals to the new world while brought back to Europe tomato potato. Potato soon became very important food in Europe; we can’t imagine how many people would have died without this nutritious food in the old world.
8. Columbus Day
Columbus Day is a national holiday in Spain and many countries in the Americas which officially celebrates the anniversary of Columbus's arrival in the Americas on October 12, 1492. It became a federal holiday in the United States in 1937, the second Monday in October every year. When we think about the legacy of the discovery and Colonization of the new world, we should not forget what the Europeans did was not civilized, was not for God but for gold. The Europeans brought to the Native Americans not brightness but darkness. The Native Americans had been cheated, pillaged and killed. Finally they have been driven away from their land and lived a terrible life in some so-called reservations. Venezuelan President Chavez once said: "Christopher Columbus was the spearhead of the biggest invasion and genocide ever seen in the history of humanity."
9. 1519 Magellan. Circumnavigation
In 1519, a Portuguese explorer, Ferdinand Magellan also sponsored by Spain started his great circumnavigation around the world. Magellan did not complete the entire voyage, as he was killed in the Philippines in 1521, his successor Sebastian Elcano completed the journey. It took three years and one month, five ships only one left, the crew of 280 only 18 returned home. The circumnavigation first proved the world is round, also proved the vastness of the Pacific Ocean made a western route to India possible but uneconomical.
10. let’s look at this map, so we can see the first one 1487 Dias, he sailed from Europe to the cape of good hope and go to the south of Africa and came back and in 1497 Da Gama started from Portugal and along this way Europe and go to India along the Indian ocean ,and the third we can see Columbus in 1492 and started from Spain and going to the Bahamas and this area and come back , and the last one, 1519 Circumnavigation by Magellan started from here and go to south America and go to Pacific ocean and from here come back to Philippines and come back here and go around the world. That’s the four navigations.
11. Spanish colonization of the Americas
Beginning with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, over three centuries, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized vast territory in Americas including the Caribbean Islands, half of South America, and north America and Three great civilizations Maya, Aztec and Inca, all destroyed by the Spanish invaders.
12. Hernando Cortes 1485-1547 was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of Spain. Conquistador in Spain means conqueror. In 1519 Cortes was a captain leading an expedition. They sailed from Cuba, across the Gulf of Mexico, landed at the west coast of the land. He first conquered Veracruz and from here he built a fortification. He left 200 soldiers there and sank his boats to show his determination of never turn back. Then he led 600 soldiers, 15 cannons, marched for 400 kilometers to the capital of the Aztec Empire Tenochtitlan, today’s Mexico City. Go along this way to here. He made alliances with indigenous tribes that the Aztec had conquered. Local people had never seen horses and iron armament. The Spanish cavalry terrified the Aztecs. Finally he conquered the Aztec and became the first Governor of New Spain. In 30 years the population of Aztecs reduced from 25 million to less than 2 million, the main reason was the diseases brought by the Spanish like smallpox, typhoid, and measles.
13. Slave trade
Slave trade is one of the ugliest, cruelest inhuman features of the Western Civilization. Portuguese first started the slave trade, followed by the other powers. The Popes granted Portugal a monopoly on the trade because the enslaved had not converted to Christianity. At the beginning they bought the slaves from trades, then they just raided the coastal villages to capture as many as possible. The Atlantic slave trade is the transportation of the enslaved Africans by slave traders mainly to the Americas. It was part of the Triangular Trade at that time between Americas, Europe and Africa. From this map we can see the triangular trade, from Africa slaves go the America, from America sugar tobacco cotton to Europe, from Europe to Africa textiles rum and manufactural goods,
14. Let’s look at how they cram the slaves into a British slave ship in 1788. It was so horrible! You can see that’s the human beings like ants.
15. World-systems theory
American scholar Immanuel Wallerstein traced the rise of the capitalist world-economy from the "long" 16th century. He divided the countries into three categories: core countries, semi-periphery and the periphery countries. Core countries are some certain countries who become the world hegemon; they focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production. And the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials. The western powers are all core countries. I think one reason of their prosperity is the colonization of the periphery countries.
16. Zheng He 1405 -1533
During the Ming Dynasty, Chinese explorer Zheng He led 7 expeditionary voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, and East Africa from 1405 to 1433. Why Columbus changed the world, but Zheng He didn't? The reason is Zheng He’s purpose is to extend the Tributary System, to impress foreign peoples, to express imperial benevolence. Not conquest, not colonization. In 1792 Emperor Qianlong from the Qing Dynasty once said to the English envoy McCartney: "the Celestial Empire is abundant for everything. Nothing we don’t have. We don’t need trade barbarian goods". China is the center of the world, others are barbarian, and of course this is arrogant. I call it the Celestial Empire mentality. But remember one thing: Zheng He didn’t conquer the other countries. Not colonization but a peaceful foreign policy.
17. His first fleet included 200 ships, 28,000 crewmen; the 62 big ships called treasure ships, it had 9 masts, 127m long and 52m wide, much bigger than Columbus’s flagship Santa María which is only 19m long, so this is Santa Maria and this is the Treasure ship.
18. Huntington
In his book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Huntington said: "The West won the world not by the superiority of its ideas or values or religion to which few members of other civilizations were converted. but rather by its superiority in applying organized violence. Westerners often forget this fact; non-Westerners never do". What is the organized violence? I think that is the conquest and colonization and they started from the Age of Discovery.
19. Let’s look at the key Words: Age of Discovery, Cristopher Columbus, Columbian Exchange, Ferdinand Magellan, World-systems theory
This is the end of the fourth part of chapter six, the age of discovery.
返回《History of Western Civilization before the 19th Century》慕课在线视频列表
Hi this is the fourth part of chapter 6
the Age of Discovery
the Age of Discovery
or Age of Exploration
is an informal and loosely
defined period in the European history
from the end of the 15th century
to the 18th century
There is a Chinses expression Dahanghai
but in English it is called
Age of Discovery
or Age of Exploration
The Age of Discovery also
started the slave trade
and colonialization
From the perspective of Europeans
they discovered a new world previously
unknown to them
But from the perspective of the local people
already lived there for maybe millions years
it is an old world their motherland
To them the Europeans are invaders
from previously unknown countries
Why did Europeans wanted to
discover a sea route to India
In 1453 The Ottomans conquered
the Byzantine Empire
The name of this city changed into Istanbul
and it became the capital
of the Ottoman Empire
We all know the Silk Road has a history
as long as more than two thousand years
beginning in the Chinese Han dynasty
Zhang Qian expanded the section
from Chan An to the Central Asia
The Silk Road played a significant role
in the trade between the west and the East
Silk and spices reached
Europe through the Silk Road
After the expansion of the Ottoman Empire
this road had been blocked
both on the land and on the sea
But the demand for spices
and silk continued to rise
at a great rate than their supply
This is the reason for Europeans
to discover a sea route to India
We can see from the map
that’s the Silk Road on the land
and on the sea
but ottoman empire
blocked the road from here
Spices
The word spice comes from the
Old French word espice
which came from the Latin
Spices are usually dried and
produced from the plants
including leaves flowers seeds
bark roots and fruits
Historians believe nutmeg
was introduced to Europe
in the 6th century BCE
Nutmeg is one of the four great spices
originates from the
Banda Islands in Indonesia
Spices were among the most demanded
and expensive products
in Europe in the Middle Ages
The Four great spices are
Cinnamon clove and nutmeg
and also mace
We can imagine how fast food could be
rotten without refrigerator
Spices not only can add flavor
but also can be used as preservatives
Some spices were used as perfumes to
battle the bad smell
in the city streets and the living areas
We know that time sanitary
conditions were terrible
Portuguese were the pioneers in
exploration and colonization
Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator
was the son of king John I
He is regarded as the main initiator
of the Age of Discovery
Through his administrative direction
the Portuguese discovered
the sea rout to India
along the coast of Africa
and cross the Indian Ocean
1488 Dias passed the Cape
of Good Hope
Bartolomeu Dias was explorer
and a nobleman
of the Portuguese royal household
In 1488 he sailed
around the west coast of Africa
passed the Cape of Good Hope
and the southernmost tip of Africa
reached the Indian Ocean
the first European have done so
He intended to go further
but the mutiny of his crew forced
him to return to Lisbon
Mutiny means rebellion
Dias said his goal is to give light to those
who are in darkness and to grow rich
Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese
nobleman and explorer
the first European to reach India
by an ocean route
After 2 years voyage
he brought back the most valuable
spices of the East
His discovery connected the
Atlantic and the Indian Ocean
He opened the way for an age
of global imperialism
and for the Portuguese to establish
a colonial empire in Asia
We can see his statue
That’s from the front
That’s from the back
He’s looking at the sea
Cristopher Columbus
was an Italian adventure
Born in the Republic of Genoa
He believed that the world was round
and to reach the East Indies
a western course would be shorter
than the route found by Portuguese
which has to going through Africa
He was right
It is true he can reach India by going west
He was wrong
this route actually four times longer
On the evening of 3 August 1492
Columbus started his sailing to the west
across the Atlantic Ocean with three ships
The flagship Santa Maria
was about 19m long
On 12 October he landed
on an island in the Bahamas
that he named San Salvador
Columbus believed he reached
the East Indies
the lands of South and Southeast Asia
He called the Native Americans Indians
He proclaimed he had found a new world
in Spanish Mundus Novus
and this New World belong to Spain
because his exploration was sponsored
by the Spanish King Ferdinand
and Queen Isabella
From 1493 to 1502
in his next three more voyages
he reached the Greater and Lesser Antilles
as well as the Caribbean coast
of Venezuela and Central America
claiming all of them the Spanish territories
He was rewarded as the first Spanish
Governor of the Indies
It is wrong to say
Columbus discovered a New World
It was an old world belong
to the Native Americans
They had been living there
for maybe 30000 years
It was their motherland
The Europeans brutally conquered
and colonized this vast land
This is the painting
of the landing of Columbus
Columbus was a bellwether
bellwether is a leader
and originally a bellwether is the sheep
that leads the herd often wearing a bell
After Columbus
waves of Spanish French Dutch
German and English
rushed to conquer the new world
Their motive can be
summarized in three words
Gold God and Glory
They want to plunder the
resources and wealth
They want to Christianize the
indigenous people
They want to bring honor
to their kings and queens
Europeans sometime describe
the indigenes people
as dog-faced dog-toothed
Sometime they were called satyrs
Satyr is a man with strong sexual desires
Have you seen the film series the
Chronicles of Narnia
This guy is a satyr with a human
head and goat body
Sometime the local people were
called cannibals
people who eat human
Have you read Daniel Defoe’s
Robinson Crusoe
Robinson Crusoe’s servant Friday
formerly was a cannibal
In 1972 an American historian
Alfred Crosby published a book
The Columbian Exchange
Biological and Cultural
Consequences of 1492
Since then the term Columbian Exchange
has become popular among
historians and journalists
It refers to the widespread
transfer of plants animals
culture human populations
technology and ideas
between the new world and the old World
After Columbus's voyage
The Europeans brought diseases
like smallpox typhoid measles and influenza
that killed millions of native Americans
because they don’t have immunity
The Europeans also brought
horse pigs cow
and other domestic animals
to the new world
while brought back to Europe
tomato and potato
Potato soon became very important
food in Europe
We can’t imagine how many people
would have died
without this nutritious
food in the old world
Columbus Day is a national holiday
in Spain and many countries
in the Americas
which officially celebrates
the anniversary of
Columbus's arrival in the Americas
on October 12 1492
It became a federal holiday
in the United States in 1937
the second Monday in October every year
When we think about the legacy
of the discovery
and Colonization of the new world
We should not forget
what the Europeans did was not civilized
was not for God but for gold
The Europeans brought
to the Native Americans
not brightness but darkness
The Native Americans had been
cheated pillaged and killed
Finally they have been driven away
from their land and lived a terrible life
in some so-called reservations
Venezuelan President Chavez once said
Christopher Columbus was the spearhead
of the biggest invasion and genocide
ever seen in the history of humanity
In 1519 a Portuguese explorer
Ferdinand Magellan also
sponsored by Spain
started his great circumnavigation
around the world
Magellan did not complete the
entire voyage
as he was killed in the Philippines in 1521
His successor Sebastian Elcano
completed the journey
It took three years and one month
Five ships only one left
The crew of 280 only 18 returned home
The circumnavigation first
proved the world is round
also proved the vastness of the Pacific Ocean
Made a western route to India
possible but uneconomical
let’s look at this map
so we can see
the first one 1487 Dias
and he sailed from Europe
to the cape of good hope
and go to the southmost
of Africa and came back
In 1497 Da Gama started from Portugal
and along this way Europe and go to India
along the Indian ocean
And the third we can see Columbus in 1492
and started from Spain
and going to the Bahamas
and this area and come back
And the last one 1519
Circumnavigation by Magellan
started from here and go to south America
and go to Pacific ocean
from here come back to
Philippines and come back here
and go around the world
That’s the four navigations
Beginning with the arrival of Columbus
in 1492
over three centuries the Spanish Empire
conquered and colonized vast territory
in Americas including Caribbean Islands
Half of South America and north America
and three great civilizations
Maya Aztec and Inca
all destroyed by the Spanish invaders
Hernando Cortes was a Spanish
Conquistador
who led an expedition
that conquered the Aztec Empire
and brought large portions
of what is now mainland Mexico
under the rule of Spain
Conquistador in Spain means conqueror
In 1519 Cortes was a captain
leading an expedition
They sailed from Cuba across the
Gulf of Mexico
landed at the west coast of the land
He first conquered Veracruz
Veracruz
and From there he built a fortification
He left 200 soldiers there
and sank his boats
to show his determination
of never turn back
Then he led 600 soldiers 15 cannons
marched for 400 kilometers
to the capital of the Aztec
Empire Tenochtitlan
today’s Mexico City
Go along this way to here
He made alliances with
indigenous tribes
that the Aztec had conquered
Local people had never seen
horses and iron armament
The Spanish cavalry terrified the Aztecs
Finally he conquered the Aztec
and became the first Governor
of New Spain
In 30 years the population of Aztecs
reduced from 25 million to
less than 2 million
The main reason was the
diseases brought by the Spanish
like smallpox typhoid and measles
Slave trade is one of the
ugliest cruelest inhuman features
of the Western Civilization
Portuguese first started
the slaves trade
followed by the other powers
The Popes granted Portugal
a monopoly on the trade
because the enslaved had
not converted to Christianity
At the beginning
they bought the slaves from trades
then they just raided the
coastal villages
to capture as many as possible
The Atlantic slave trade
is the transportation
of the enslaved Africans
by slave traders mainly to the Americas
It was part of the Triangular
Trade at that time
between Americas Europe and Africa
From this map we can see
the triangular trade
From Africa slaves go the America
From Americas sugar tobacco
cotton to Europe
From Europe to Africa textiles rum
and manufactural goods
Let’s Look at how they cram the slaves
into a British slave ship in 1788
It was so horrible
You can see that’s the human beings
like ants
World System Theory
American scholar Immanuel Wallerstein
traced the rise of the capitalist
world-economy
from the long 16th century
He divided the countries into
three categories
Core countries semi-periphery
and the periphery countries
Core countries are some
certain countries
who become the world hegemon
They focus on higher skill
capital-intensive production
And the rest of the world
focuses on low-skill
labor-intensive production
and extraction of raw materials
The western powers are all core countries
I think one reason of their prosperity
is the colonization of the periphery countries
During the Ming Dynasty in China
Chinese explorer Zheng
He led 7 expeditionary voyages
to Southeast Asia South Asia Western Asia
and East Africa from 1405 to 1433
Why Columbus changed the world
but Zheng He didn't
The reason is Zheng He’s purpose
is to extend the Tributary System
to impress foreign peoples
to express imperial benevolence
Not conquest not colonization
In 1792 Emperor Qianlong
from the Qing Dynasty
told English envoy McCartney
the Celestial Empire is
abundant for everything
Nothing we don’t have
We don’t need trade barbarian goods
China is the center of the
world others are barbarian
of course this is arrogant
I call it the Celestial Empire mentality
But remember one thing
Zheng He didn’t conquered
the other countries
not colonization but a peaceful
foreign policy
His first fleet included 200
ships 28000 crewmen
The 62 big ships called
treasure ships
It had 9 masts 127m long
and 52m wide
much bigger than Columbus’s
flagship Santa Maria
which is only 19m long
So this is Santa Maria
and this is the Treasure ship
In his book
The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order
Huntington said
The West won the world
not by the superiority of its ideas
or values or religion
to which few members of other
civilizations were converted
but rather by its superiority in
applying organized violence
Westerners often forget this fact
Non-Westerners never do
What is the organized violence
I think that is the conquest
and colonization
and they started from the
Age of Discovery
let’s look at the key Words
Age of Discovery
Cristopher Columbus
Columbian Exchange
Ferdinand Magellan
World-systems theory
This is the end of the fourth part
of chapter six
The age of discovery
-1.0 Introduction
--1.0.3 Exercises
-1.1 Greek Bronze Age and Dark Age
--1.1.3 Exercises
-1.2 Greek Gods
--1.2.3 Exercises
-1.3 Archaic Greece
--1.3.3 Exercises
-1.4 Athens and the Persian Wars
--1.4.3 Exercises
-1.5 Discussion
-2.1 War and politics in the fifth century BC
--2.1.3 Exercises
-2.2 Greece in the fourth century BC
--2.2.3 Exercises
-2.3 Classical Greek Philosophy
--2.3.3 Exercises
-2.4 Athenian Drama
--2.4.3 Exercises
-2.5 Alexander the Great and Hellenistic World
--2.5.3 Exercises
-2.6 Discussion
-3.1 Roman Kingdom
--3.1.3 Exercises
-3.2 Early Republic
--3.2.3 Exercises
-3.3 Mid-Republic
--3.3.3 Exercises
-3.4 Late-Republic
--3.4.3 Exercises
-3.5 End of the Republic
--3.5.3 Exercises
-3.6 Discussion
-4.1 Pax Romana 1
--4.1.3 Excecises
-4.2 Pax Romana 2
--4.2.3 Excecises
-4.3 Crisis of the Third Century and Constantine
--4.3.3 Excecises
-4.4 The Victory of Christianity
--4.4.3 Exercises
-4.5 The Fall of the Roman Empire
--4.5.3 Exercises
-4.6 Discussion
-5.1 Early Middle Ages
--5.1.3 Excecises
-5.2 Carolingian Dynasty
--5.2.3 Excecises
-5.3 High Middle Ages
--5.3.3 Excecises
-5.4 Late Middle Ages 1
--5.4.1 Excecises
-5.5 Late Middle Ages 2
--5.5.3 Excecises
-5.6 Discussion
-6.1 The Renaissance
--6.1.3 Exercises
-6.2 Protestant Reformation
--6.2.3 Exercises
-6.3 Italian Wars and Rise of Russia
--6.3.3 Exercises
-6.4 Age of Discovery
--6.4.3 Exercises
-6.5 French War of Religion and Russia’s Time of Trouble
--6.5.3 Exercises
-6.6 Discussion
-7.1 The Thirty Years War
--7.1.3 Exercises
-7.2 English Revolution
--7.2.3 Exercises
-7.3 Three Absolute Monarchs
--7.3.3 Exercises
-7.4 Dutch Golden Age
--7.4.3 Exercises
-7.5 Science and Culture in the 17th Century
--7.5 Text
--7.5.3 Exercises
-7.6 Discussion
-8.1 The United Kingdom
--8.1.3 Exercises
-8.2 The American Revolution
--8.2.3 Exercises
-8.3 The French Revolution
--8.3.3 Exercises
-8.4 Age of Enlightenment
--8.4.3 Exercises
-8.5 West after the 18th century
--8.5.3 Exercises
-8.6 Discussion
-Final Exam
--Final Exam